I hate Iris? NO NO NO.

I hate her, hate her very very very much, cos everytime, nothing's about her business, but she always like to take in charge with everything that makes everyone hate her.

A small company reflects a fact that, people all have two even several faces, eg. when you face to the boss, you are in face A, when you face to the people who has the same stage of you, you are in face B, when you face people less important than you are, you are in face C...etc.

You wanna survive in this situation, you have to make sure you have an abundant faces. The more the better, cos bitches everywhere, like the one besides me who's talking to Dryden. Her Chinglish really sucks, but instead, she treat her like god. God! She who doesn't know I'm the GOD.

Maybe this' little stupid, but, what else can I make balance from the first infrastration. Ai~~

Whatever, come on! I'll handle them all, and get rid of everything.

March.27th

I dunno what boss' mean, otherwise, she treats me good though, she always wants to keep me out of trouble, err. maybe what i thought of her was wrong, maybe.

Anyway, i dunno her well enough now, I'll keep on updating.

gnosis of new job.

Finally, it's been almost two weeks since i took the job of PWS(that's potteryworkshop, you can check http://potteryworkshop.org to check it.) Jiangbo quit the job, and i never asked him why, maybe that's because this job's too tensify, and there's better chance for him, so. Anyway, I took his place.

I love ceramic, and I'm proud of being a Chinese, maybe you are curious that why an English major wants to change her major as Ceramic Products Design, chances are everywhere, why I chose to stay in Jingdezhen instead of back home. And this place is, less developped and full of people who regard themselves as infailliable, and that is the spot i dispise though.

Boss came back the day before yesterday, she's just came from German, and the first sentence she said to us was like"ah! the responsiblity to save ceramic world is us! you see German's already developped, but they don't know how to spread their own ceramic culture! and i hate America, i don't wanna go back again!"

They've said that's the well-fed don't know how the starving suffer, and i agree with it.

I know the ceramic world nowadays' not popular as the old days, especially after the whole world's economic crisis, the only people who can afford the art is like the one upstart or whoever rich. If you role into the club, which means you have to burn the money.

The pury art does not exsit anymore here, i do think Jingdezhen is where like i said, i love this place, the atmosphere, the fengrossment of making ceramics, but, yeah, there's always a but, they don't treat this as art, on the contrary, they define this as money. And the worse thing is, people all like duplicate others' works, it's like, you make a cup today, then, tomoorrow, there's another cup comes out, and it's the same style, same color, even the height and weight are the same! Why people can't even change a little aspects of their copy? That is a problem.

As the new staff here, i take the charge of running the office smoonthly, like, helping foreign resident artists' visa and check the rooms and everything, to make sure they are ok. Dealing people is a knowledge, just like what i said in the beginning, people here are all think what they do are all right, not only my bosses, but also the staff. I don't like one of the staff here, I think she doesn't like either, the reason i don't like her is because she doesn't like me. Hahaha, sounds like i'm so selfish and stupid, but who cares. She thought that i took the place of her, cos first, i came here but as her boss.

Who can decide it? I got degrees, i know how to get along with other people and make the team working together well enough, but she, always, like, somebody's owe her money!

Ah~ Sigh~

Whatever. I'll try my best. and i know what to do next. hahaha, the report's over~

英语论文写作规范

自编讲义



英语论文写作与规范

General introduction to Academic writing









编写: 刘 定 远

2005年9月









CONTENTS

1. What is academic writing………………………………………………………1
1.1 Definition……………………………………………………………… 1
1.2 Nature of academic writing……………………………………………1
1.3 The style of academic writing…………………………………………1
1.4 The general organization of academic writing……………………2
1.5 Introduction…………………………………………………………… 2
1.6 Abstract………………………………………………………………… 2
Definition of abstract…………………………………………2
Approaches to writing abstract………………………………3
Linguistic characteristic of abstract……………………3
Features of academic writing…………………………………………………4
2.1 What comes first in the sentence………………………………………4
2.2 Verb choice…………………………………………………………………5
2.3 Active or passive construction…………………………………………5
2.4 Abstract nouns………………………………………………………………6
2.5 Nominalization………………………………………….…………………6
2.6 Tentative tone………………………………………………………………7
2.7 Getting the balance………………………………………………………8
2.8 Objectivity………………………………………………………………… 8
2.9 Combining personal and distanced writing……………………………9
3. Writing the essay………………………………………………………………10
3.1 Establishing a clear structure………………………………………11
3.1.1 The introduction……………………………………………………11
3.1.2 The body………………………………………………………………12
3.1.3 The conclusion………………………………………………………12
3.2 Recognizing types of essays……………………………………………13
3.2.1 The expository essays………………………………………………14
3.2.1.1 A description……………………………………………………14
3.2.1.2 An explanation…………………………………………………15
3.2.1.3 A comparison – contrast………………………………………17
3.2.2 The discussion essay……………………………………………… 19
3.2.2.1 Analysis and critical analysis………………………………20
3.2.2.2 Critical evaluation……………………………………………22
3.2.3 Model discussion essay outline…………………………………24
4. Supplementary material ………………………………………………………27
4.1 Examples for abstract……………………………………………………27
4.2 Examples for introduction………………………………………………30
4.3 Examples for conclusion…………………………………………………33
4.4 Examples for bibliography………………………………………………36
4.5 Standards and form for academic writing……………………………37

Part 1. What is academic writing?


1.1 Definition: Academic writing has a known public purpose as well as a universally-recognized conventions about its layout, form and style which are standardized to a large degree.
Academic writing, as the name implies, is the kind of writing that you are required to do in college or university. It differs from other kinds of writing (personal, literary, journalistic, business, etc.) in several ways. Its differences can be explained in part by its special audience, tone, and purpose. Whenever you write, consider your audience, that is, the people who will read what you have written. Knowing your audience will help you reach your goal of communicating clearly and effectively. For example, you may write letters to friends to tell them what a great time you are having socializing in school while neglecting(not paying attention to) your studies. You may have to write an essay for a history, political science, psychology, or English exam. Later, you may have to write a letter to a prospective (possible or future) employer. Each of these letters has a specific audience and what you say and how you say it will affect your audience's understanding of your message. In academic writing, your audience is primarily your professors. Not only should you be concerned with your audience, but you should also be concerned with the tone of your writing. Tone reveals your attitude towards your subject by your choice of words, by your choice of grammatical structures, and even by the length of your sentences. A letter to a friend, for example, would have a friendly, personal tone; it would probably contain some "slang" expressions and many active verb forms. A technical or scientific paper, by contrast, would contain more passive verb forms and technical vocabulary; it would have a highly formal, impersonal tone. The tone of a piece of writing is determined more by its intended audience than by its subject matter. For example, the latest medical research in the United States is reported in The American Journal of Medicine. These scientific articles are written for a very special audience of scientists and doctors who understand medical and technical vocabulary. However, if the same articles were written for newspapers or popular magazines, they would be written in general English with technical words explained in everyday vocabulary because the intended audience, the general public, might not understand highly technical terminology. Academic writing is always formal in tone. No matter what kind of writing you do, you should have a specific and clear purpose. In literary writing, the purpose is often to entertain, whereas journalistic writing usually seeks to inform or to persuade. In academic writing, your purpose will most often be to explain. It may also be to persuade or to convince your audience of the correctness of your point of view on a particular issue. The purpose of a piece of writing will determine the rhetorical form (organizational form and style) chosen for it. For example, an article that tries to persuade readers that nuclear power plants are unsafe has a different purpose from an article that explains how a nuclear power plant operates. The persuasive article will be organized in one way, and the expository (explanatory) article in another way. As you write each assignment in this course, and later in your life, whenever you need to communicate in writing, keep in mind your audience, tone, and purpose so that the message your reader receives is the message you intend to convey(express).

1.2 Nature of academic writing
1) professional
2) academic
3) Scientific
An academic paper is based on extensive research on a subject. It expects you to be find, select, and weigh evidence, make inferences, and reach viable conclusions. It relies on proven facts and authoritative testimony which can only be gathered through fist-hand experiments, field research, and library research.
1.3 Style and clarity
What does style and clarity in academic writing involve?
precise use of formal language
impersonal style
clearly constructed sentences
care with abbreviations and acronyms
Formal language
When writing or speaking, we choose the words which seem most suitable to the purpose and audience. In academic writing we use formal language, avoiding the use of slang and colloquial language.
In contrast to spoken English, a distinctive feature of academic writing style is for writers to choose the more formal alternative when selecting a verb, noun, or other part of speech.
English often has two (or more) choices to express an action or occurrence. The choice is often between, on the one hand, a verb which is part of a phrase (often verb + preposition), and a verb which is one word only. Often in lectures and in everyday spoken English, the verb + preposition is used (eg speak up, give up, write down); however, for written academic style, the preferred choice is a single verb wherever possible.
For example
Informal: The social worker looked at the client's history to find out which interventions had previously been implemented.
Academic: The social worker examined the client's history to establish which interventions had previously been implemented.
Impersonal style
Compare the changes in these sentences from informal to academic style.
Comparison of sentences from informal writing to academic writing
Informal writing
Academic writing
When I look at the situation in emergency wards, with many staff leaving, it's hard not to worry about how many doctors will be available to treat patients in the future.
If we consider the situation in emergency wards, with increasingly low staff retention rates, there are concerns about the capacity of hospitals to maintain adequate doctor to patient ratios.
It's so obvious that people were given jobs just because they were male or female. I don't think that is an acceptable approach and is even against the law.
It appears that in a number of instances jobs were assigned on the basis of gender. Given the current anti-discrimination laws, this raises serious concerns.
You will notice that, in general, in academic writing we:
minimise the use of the personal I in the text: avoid writing 'When I look; I don't think this is an acceptable approach'
use formal verbs, and fewer verb phrases (verb + preposition), use consider rather than look at
use impersonal expressions: there are…, this raises
use more nouns than verbs: concerns, rather than to worry
avoid emotional expressions, such as it's so obvious ( it appears is preferable); just because ( assigned on the basis of is preferable)
aim for concise, often abstract expression, gender, rather than male or female.
Objective writing
In general, academic writing aims to be objective in its expression of ideas. Therefore specific reference to personal opinions, or to yourself as the performer of actions, is usually avoided.
Expressing opinions
Expressing opinions
Personal
Objective
In my opinion I believe that… In my view…

It has been argued that
Some writers claim… state, maitain
Clearly,… It is clear that… There is little doubt that…
Avoiding too much reference to yourself as agent in your writing
Avoid reference to yourself as agent in your writing
Agent or performer
No agent or performer
I undertook the study…
The study was undertaken…
I propose to …
It is proposed to…
In this essay I will examine…
This essay examines…
There are times when it is important to emphasise authorial stance – ie that it is specifically your position or view. Check with your tutor in the unit as to how much of yourself as the author it is appropriate to acknowledge and include in your writing.
Clear sentences
For clarity, it is also important to keep a check on sentence length. If sentences are too short, your writing will sound childish; if they are too long, the reader will lose track.
Use of acronyms and abbreviations
Explain any terminology which you think may not be familiar to the reader – or which they may not necessarily know you know.
Always write a long name in full the first time you use it, regardless of how well known it is.
For example
The World Health Organisation (WHO) is affiliated with the United Nations (UN). The UN provides funds which help the WHO perform its role effectively.
Research into weapons of mass destruction (WMD) has increased the potential risks from bioterrorism. Agencies involved in the development of WMD have on occasion failed to maintain adequate levels of security, and this has led to potentially hazardous materials falling into the wrong hands.
Abbreviations should generally be avoided. However, it is appropriate to use standard abbreviations sometimes in scientific writing. For the first reference to a term in the text, the term should be used in full with the abbreviation included in brackets. For the remainder of the text the abbreviation should be used. However, abbreviations should not be used in the abstract or in the title.
For example
Where the patient exhibits these symptoms it is appropriate for the doctor to request an electrocardiagram (ECG). An ECG may help to establish…
Adapted from Peat, J et al, (2002) Scientific writing, London: BMJ.
Note that, in academic writing usually the full form is used rather than contractions, as follows
Avoid abbreviations in academic writing
Full form
Contraction
do not
don't
cannot
can't
will not
won't
must not
mustn't
he would
he'd


1.4 Stylistic features of academic writing
An academic tone is often achieved by combining some or all of the following elements, which are explained in detail below:
·the initial focus of a sentence is on the issue, not the writer;
·verb choice is precise
·the passive construction is sometimes used;
·abstract nouns are more common;
·technical terms are expected where relevant;
·nominalization may be used where the text focuses on ideas or concepts (things)
rather than happenings (verbs);
·a tentative tone may be used;

1.4.1What comes first in the sentence?
It is useful to understand that in English, what comes first in the sentence (called the Theme in some grammar books) takes the focus: it is the subject. If ‘I’ comes first then obviously the writer is placing him/herself as the starting point, as in ‘I think …’. On the other hand, if the issue or a theorist’s name comes first, then this is the subject of the writing.
For example, compare the three following sentences for the initial focus of each sentence.
1. I think that Bloggs’ (1997) explanation of the writing process provides a useful basis for understanding how to plan an assignment. Here the writer is the subject, and the actual opinion is the new information.
2. Bloggs’ (1997) explanation of the process provides a useful basis for understanding how to plan an assignment. Here, Bloggs’ theory takes the focus. The writer of the text has disappeared.
3. Understanding how to plan an assignment emerges from research on the writing process (Bloggs, 1997). Now the issue takes the focus and the theorist is given less prominence. Again, the writer of the text has disappeared and the statement sounds more authoritative than the original version.
You need to decide where you want the focus to be. It is useful to read someone else’s writing (for example a journal article, or a political speech in a newspaper) to analyze where the writer has placed the focus. For example, in the two sentences that follows, notice what the writer has chosen to write first in the sentence, and ask why.
1. I have decided that taxes should be reduced. (The writer features him/herself first, possibly to take the credit for a popular decision.)
2. Taxes will be increased. (The focus is on taxes and the person who has made the decision has disappeared from the sentence, obviously not wanting to take responsibility quite so clearly! See passive construction below).
The decision to be accountable for an action, or not, can be seen in the choice of what comes first in the many sentences you will hear or read.
In academic writing, by mentioning the issue or topic in the focus position the writer may create a more formal and distant tone, which also may give more authority to the statement.

1.4.2Verb choice
Ensure that the verbs you choose convey a precise meaning. Some verb groups tend to be colloquial and imprecise, such as The writer looks at the issue. A more formal choice would be: The writer examines (or considers) the issue. Other examples follow: Informal choices: He says … talks about … Evidence shows … and you will see … Formal choices: He states … discusses … maintains … contends … Evidence indicates … demonstrates … it can be understand …
In academic writing, verbs are often used to describe, define, explain and connect ideas, and usually are in the timeless present tense indicating that the academic debate is on-going, not over. Often the interest is not so much in what people do, but in what it means/signifies and how it can be explained.

1.4.3Active or passive construction
Linked to a choice about what to put first in the sentence is the decision whether to use an active or passive sentence construction. Put simply, an active construction means that the ‘doer’ or agent of the action is the subject of the sentence, as in sentence 1 above (I have decided that taxed should be reduced).
Consider another example: I killed the cat. ‘I’ takes the focus and it is clear I did the deed, I am the agent. If in this scenario the deed was accidental, it is unlikely that the agent would phrase the information this way and so have to take the blame for it: more likely it would be passively constructed as in The cat has been killed. Now the focus is on the cat, although the cat is certainly not the agent of the deed! In fact, by focusing on the cat, the reader or listener’s attention is drawn to the cat, and it may even be blamed for the accident! It is not only politicians and bureaucrats who may not wish to disclose the agent of the action: in everyday interactions, people use the passive construction frequently to avoid being accountable for a statement, to avoid confrontation or appearing rude.
In academic writing the choice of a passive construction may be made for several reasons.
·the agent is not known, or it is not necessary or important in the context to identify the agent. For example: Essay writing can be divided into expository and argumentative texts. (by whom? Is it relevant?)
·the focus is on issues not particular individuals. For example: Care must be taken to avoid plagiarism. (is it necessary to say by whom? Can it be taken for granted?)
·the writer does not want to create a personal tone and so uses the passive to make a point without using the first person pronoun(I). For example: Reading is seen as a shared process … (in other words, I see reading as a shared process …)
1.4. Abstract nouns
These are the labels in the language for ideas, concepts and feelings. Commonly academic analysis is concerned with broader, general issues that arise from particular concrete experiences. The writer may begin with a focus on the specific event or happening (for example, a group of students writing an assignment) in order to widen the discussion to issues that may arise (for example: the nature of the learning that is taking place or the effect of anxiety on writing performance).
Your writing will ‘sound’ more formal and academic as the following comparison shows, where sentence 1 focuses on people and events (concrete nouns and verbs) much in the way that you might speak, while sentence 2 translates the message into a more formal tone, like an official memo (abstract nouns are underlined in sentence 2):
1 Teachers are worried about how many students are truanting. Teachers will have to enforce the rules and make more frequent checks in the classrooms (a text about what people are doing and will do).
2 Teacher concern about the extent of student truancy will lead to greater enforcement of rules and increased frequency of classroom checks (a text about concepts and issues).
In academic writing, the use of abstract nouns enables you to analyze, explain and evaluate concepts and theories, moving from the specific instance to a general discussion.
1.4.Nominalization
This refers to the process of writing more abstractly, that is, by transforming concrete terms (verbs which tell about what is done and by implication, the people who have done the deeds) into language about ideas and concepts (that is, into nouns). This process enables you to focus on nouns (things) rather than on verbs (actions).
For example:
1. When you compare the two essays you will see that the earlier text
was written in a more conversational style.
Here it is clear who is doing what (you are comparing). The writing is quite direct and familiar, it could be a spoken message addressed to a particular person.
To make it more distant in tone, and therefore more formal, the verb may can be nominalized, that is made into the noun form (compare >comparison).
2. A comparison of the two essays indicates that the earlier text was written in a more conversational style.
The emphasis is thus on the abstract idea of a comparison, rather than who is doing what. The pronoun (you: the doer, or agent) has disappeared.
In academic writing, the use of an abstract noun (e.g. comparison) in place of its verb form (compare; compared) makes the writing more impersonal, even more authoritative. Nominalization also helps to condense text as can be seen in the following example where the original sentence is tightened. It also becomes possible to add new information.
Original:
Students should be aware that they must avoid plagiarism, which may incur penalties.
Nominalized version: Avoidance of plagiarism and its penalties .. (now add new idea)
It would be difficult for beginning writers to attempt this sort of construction in first drafts, but it is useful in later drafts to try to condense a string of sentences in this way, particularly when you have a limited word count. To move towards a more formal level may take several attempts, and it is wise to remember your reader and not over-do it and become unnecessarily convoluted! Clarity must be the goal!
1.4.6Tentative tone
Frequently academic writing is tentative rather than definite in its claims. For example, contrast the following sentences and decide which seems more ‘academic’:
1. Violence on television causes juvenile delinquency.
2. Violence on television may be a contributing cause of some cases of juvenile delinquency.
The second sentence allows or concedes that there may be other causes and that juvenile delinquency is a large area that would need to be analyzed.
Words which convey tentativeness: may, might, should, could, probably, possibly, in some instances and so on.
In academic writing, depending on the discipline area and the context, the tentative tone may be used to suggest rather than declare, particularly in a discussion of an issue. This leaves the door open for further discussion and research, not shutting down the debate in a final and perhaps simplistic manner.
1.4.7Getting the balance
The result of trying these techniques for academic writing should be a shorter text with a concentration of information and ideas, expressed in a more formal and authoritative tone. For example, the following string of six simple sentences can be tightened to show the relationship between the chunks of meaning more concisely, making every word count. Notice that each original sentence contains one idea or chunk of meaning.
1. You should view the writing process as a series of drafts.
2. These drafts move closer towards the final version.
3. Hand in the final version.
4. This view of the writing process can help you to overcome writer’s block.
5. This term refers to the experience of finding it difficult to begin writing.
6. It may even be impossible to begin writing.
A more ‘academic’ version follows, using some of the above features of distanced writing:
Writer’s block, which refers to the difficulty, even impossibility of beginning to write, can be overcome by viewing the assignment writing process as a series of drafts that move closer towards the final version.
The message is now contained in one sentence, containing the main message from sentences 1 and 4. You can see how some original sentences have almost disappeared to become phrases; the number of verbs (underlined) or happenings, has been reduced. Abstract nouns have been used (difficulty, impossibility) and a passive construction (writer’s block can be overcome) impersonalizes the message (you has disappeared).
There is a fine balance, of course. Too much in a sentence makes it reader-unfriendly as you are taxing the reader’s short-term memory if you include too many chunks of meaning into one sentence. It may become difficult for the reader if the subject of your sentence is separated from its verb by too many extra chunks. This may also lead you into grammatical error if you forget to make the subject, verb and pronouns match in number.
1.4.8Objectivity?
While writing in a distant and formal tone is valued in much academic writing, the values and assumptions of even the most skilful writers can nevertheless be discerned through the structure of their sentences, by what is chosen as the focus of the sentence, for example. A text could be written in a number of alternative ways because a writer’s choices reflect his/her view point, even when the writing seems quite objective.
Value-laden words also frequently reveal a writer’s bias, without the explicit identification of a personal point of view. When you describe the strengths or limitations of a position, your judgement, even your bias is clear. You can elect to make this stronger if you describe the valuable or useful suggestions of one theory, or the shortcomings and gaps in another. Other terms such a clearly or obviously, must or should also show the writer’s viewpoint.
1.4.9Combining personal and distanced writing
Many assignments require you to move from personal writing to impersonal writing within the one text. For example in a case study of your experience, part of your text would be a description and explanation of what happened to you, and what you observed. This means you would write from your personal perspective (see above). However, the second part of the task may require you to explain your experience in relation to theories you have studied. In this part of the text it would be expected that you would move into a more formal explanation of those theories, that is, that you analyze your experience from an academic distance (see above).
For example: a hypothetical task
Based on your first week’s experience in the university, write a report to describe how you adapted to different learning experiences in lectures and tutorials. Evaluate this experience in the light of at least three theories of learning in the university context. Note that this task requires a comparison of experience (first part of task) and theory (second part of task).

































1.4 The general organization of academic writing
swales(1990)summarized IMRD format, i.e.

1.introduction

2.methods
3.results
4.discussion

1.5 The introduction part mainly contains the following contents:
1.Establishing the field, a few words about the subject, or the topic, or the purpose of the writing;
2.Summarizing previous related research , or providing some historical background or development for the research;
3.Introducing the present research (the main contents of each part);
4.Indicating the statement of conclusion, the weakness or problem of the research.


Example:
Introduction
This paper is about a survey of attitudes to classroom English learning amongst 2656 students in eleven countries, eight in Asia and three in Europe. It has four main parts:
1. First, the paper explains the background to the survey by providing a brief outline of the theoretical issues which stimulated it ( section II ).
2. Second, it describes my initial explorations in the area and introduces the present survey( section III ).
3. Third, it presents statistical results and discusses them, particularly in relation to the theoretical background presented earlier( Section IV ).
4. Finally, it draws some conclusions concerning what these results might tell us about students’ attitude to learning in different cultural context (Section V ).
When the research reported here is evaluated in terms of the design of its instrument and the nature of its sample, there are weaknesses. Some of these will be mentioned at appropriate points in the paper. Meanwhile, in spite of these shortcomings, it is hoped that the results are robust enough to contribute something to our understanding of learners from different cultures and to suggest directions for future research.

1.6 Abstract:
1.6.1. Definition of abstract:
An abstract is a brief, accurate representation of the contents of document, a summary of the paper.( abstract functions as independent discourse as well as being advance indicators of the content and structure of the following text. )
Indicative abstract .Informative abstract
1.6.2 Approaches to writing abstracts
An abstract usually contains 4 moves:

Move 1: Introducing purpose (background)

Move 2: Describing methodology

Move 3: Summarizing result


Move 4: Presenting conclusion

1.6.3 Linguistic characteristic of abstract :
1. The use of past tense, third person, passive, and the non-use of negative;
2. It avoids subordinate clauses, uses phrases instead of clauses, words instead of phrases.
3. it avoids abbreviation, jargon, symbols and other language shortcuts which might lead to confusion.
4. It is written in tightly worded sentences, which avoid repetition , meaningless expressions, superlatives, adjectives, illustrations, preliminaries, descriptive details, examples, footnotes.
Examples:
1. With a listening typewriter, what an author says would be automatically recognized and displayed in front of him or her. However, speech recognition is not yet advanced enough to provide people a reliable listening typewriter. An aim of our experiments was to determine if an imperfect listening typewriter would be useful for composing letters. Participants dictated letters, either in isolated words or in consecutive word speech. They did this with stimulations of listening typewriters that recognized either a limited vocabulary or an unlimited vocabulary. Results indicated that some versions, even upon first using them, were at least as good as traditional methods of handwriting and dictating. Isolated word speech with large vocabularies may provide the basis for a useful listening typewriter.
2. 时间隐喻表征的跨文化研究
在广泛收集语料的基础上,用内容分析和因素分析方法探析了中英时间隐喻表征的概念结构,获得了时间隐喻概念的11个构成维度,证实了时间隐喻表征有着系统的内部结构的构想,并发现中英两种文化在时间隐喻概念结构上非常相似.我们认为这表明时间隐喻概念和思维是泛人类认知力的结果,这是对Lakoff有关思维与意义关系的经验主义假设的一个支持.
2.














3. Writing the Essay

3.1 Establishing a clear structure
There are different types of essays for different types, but all have three basic parts: an introduction, a body and a conclusion.
The evidence of your research will be contained in the body of the essay and this will be where most of the marks for the assignment are earned through your description, explanations, comparisons, arguments, evidence and examples. However, it is also important to realize that this work needs to be placed in a context where it makes sense for the reader, connecting your scholarly work to the task you were given.
It is usually the function of the introduction to establish that context and the function of the conclusion to reiterate the connection between your assignment and the task. The initial and final paragraph can be viewed as rhetorical or stylistic devices, that is, like the first and last speaker in a debate: the introduction sets the stage and provides the audience with an expectation of the text that follows, while the conclusion announces the end of the text and ties the threads of body together. All three parts are therefore interrelated and are expected in an assignment.


3.1.1 The introduction

The first paragraph of an assignment has particular purposes. It is not enough to merely repeat the wording of the task: the reader in this academic culture expects to be able to predict how the text will develop. The introduction thus identifies the task being addressed, provides some context for the writing and previews the thesis statement or points of view of the writer. Remember the whole before embracing on the parts. For example, a task may instruct:

Discuss the importance of writing competence in student’s success at university.

The structure of an introduction
·it makes a general statement about the issue or area under discussion

For example:
More students are attending university than ever before, and it is important to investigate the factors that contribute to their success.

·it sets out the main structure of the assignment.

For example:
In evaluating several significant studies in this area, it is clear that key factors relate to student motivation, the perceived relevance of a course of study and less clearly defined social and cultural factors.

Usually the scope or limitation of the assignment is mentioned.
For example:

… in the Australian context today.

·it sets out the writer’s thesis. It is definitely useful to use the key terms of the task to signify the focus of the assignment, and if this can be combined with a statement about the writer’s point of view (frequently called a thesis), the reader will be in no doubt about the direction of the assignment.

Fore example:

If success is taken to be student’s completion of their degree course in the minimum time without failed subjects, it is important to analyze the factors that enable students to pass exams and assignments. This then emphasizes the need to ensure competence in writing as a key component of success.

The full example of an introduction:

More students are attending university than ever before, and it is important to investigate the factors that contribute to their success. In evaluating several significant studies in this area, it is clear that key factors relate to student motivation, the perceived relevance of a course of study and less clearly defined social and cultural factors. If success is taken to be student’s completion of their degree course in the minimum time without failed subjects, it is important to analyze the factors that enable students to pass exams and assignments, In the Australian context today. This then emphasizes the need to ensure competence in writing as a key component of success.

In light of what has been said earlier about the writing process and the suggestion that the first draft be a free-write, it follows that often a writer is not really clear at this stage just what the thesis of the writing is. Writing is a very useful clarifying process and often you may explore what you think and where the evidence leads you by writing. Therefore, many writers find that they write their introduction at a later stage, when they are clear about their message. Because the introduction has a rhetorical function (much like setting a stage), it can be written last with attention to making it fit the expectations outlined above. In practical terms this often means re-writing the conclusion of the assignment and framing it as an introduction.

3.1.2 The Body
The body of the essay is where the evidence of your research and thinking are assembled and here you will be assessed on the development and relevance of your information and any discussion based on that information, supported by your research which should be carefully acknowledged.
The body of an essay is where you show your hard work in gathering and using information and it is here that the bulk of the marks usually lie. Several strands of information or discussion may be developed and interwoven as the text progresses.



3.1.3 The Conclusion
Just as the introduction is rhetorical device, providing a preview, so too the con conclusion needs to meet several expectations. It is a review of the text.
The structure of a conclusion
It sums up the arguments of the whole text (drawing together the main strands).

For Example: The main focus for researchers … on such areas... has shown the complexity of the issues… A principal factor... shown to be their writing competence ...more research should be directed…

It makes reference to the key terms of the task (reminding the reader of how the text started.

For example:
…factors affecting student success at university… enabling students to pass exams and assignments...

It reiterates and confirms the main thesis (connecting the end of the writing with the body).

For example:
A principal factor that emerges from recent research, examine students’ ability to pass exams and assignments, has been shown to be their writing competence.

The full example of a conclusion:
The main focus for research in several significant studies into the factors affecting student success at university has so far been such areas as student motivation and how relevant a course of study is seen to been. There has also been some research into how relevant a course of study is seen to be. There has also been some research into social and cultural factors that have shown the complexity of the issues, needing more research for clarification. A principal factor that emerges from recent research, examining students’ ability to pass exams and assignments, has been shown to be their writing competence, and it is to this area that more research should be directed.

An essential proofreading step is to read your introduction and conclusion together to ensure that you have not added to, or changed your argument in the course of writing the body, and in fact that you have done what you set out to do. There should be no new information in the conclusion. If you find you have added something not mentioned before, check that it is relevant, and if so, include it as a paragraph in the body of your text. If during the body you have changed your argument, or gone off on a tangent, it is essential to make sure either that the introduction reflects all the main direction of the argument or information, or that you discard the pieces that do not fit with your overview.

3.2 Recognizing types of essays
Typically, tasks may be analyzed to determine their essential purpose, and a list of the main structure or patterns of organization follows. Note however that many assignments will require several tasks.
There are two main types of essay for different purposes:
.The essay that informs(an expository or explanatory essay);
.The essay that argues(a discussion or critical analysis or evaluation).
As has been previously stated, many assignments require a combination of both an explanation and a discussion.
3.2.1 The expository essay: the essay that informs
The basic aim of an expository essay is to inform and explain a process, an event or series of events. The way that you structure your essay should reflect what you think is he overriding purpose of the task which may be:
. a description;
. an explanation;
. a comparison-contrast.

3.2.1.1 A description:
Where the purpose is to provide information or to tell about something, usually in a logical order(often in a time sequence: for example, a historical topic, or a description of a scientific process.)

Typical instructions for a description may be:
. describe: tell about features, factors, qualities;
. outline: list the main or general point;
. identify: select and list the main features, factors;
. enumerate: specify and list the main features(one by one);
.define: set out the meaning (of a term, word);describe
(sometimes explain).
.illustrate make clear, give examples;
.summarize give a succinct description;
.review in the sense of giving a list, an overview.
Or the task may framed as write about… or as a question: what are/ were the main features in …? What are/ were the main features/aspects of …?
Planning to write a description
Consider your reader, what terms should be defined at the beginning to make your understanding clear? What information does the reader need at the beginning of the description: where is the logical starting point? You may wish to begin with the most important event or factor, or you may need to work chronologically through a series of facts or ideas.
Here is a simple example. The task is to describe the chair you are sitting on. Where would you start? Brainstorm all its features (office chair, blue fabric, swivels, movable back, goes up and down etc.). Now make a mind map where you group the features of the chair decide on a logical order to present to someone else. You may wish to describe its overall usefulness before moving to its appearance (the big picture, this is a specially can be easily follow, rather than the random order features that were first thought of).

Signals to use in your topic sentence that help to link your material in a description include:
An important factor…in addition...Furthermore…Moreover…Another…An additional aspect…As well as… Further reasons/aspects...

If you are sequencing your description, some signals are:

Firstly…it the beginning… then… the next main … later…when… while…eventually…lastly… finally… the concluding step…

Language choices: use the past tense to describe events that are over, and third person pronouns to keep an impersonal tone.

3.2.1.2 An explanation:
Where the purpose is to explain the relationship between events or ideas in a cause and effect sequence, telling what happened (or happens) and why, and what the outcomes were; or to give reasons for a circumstance and the result of it.

Typical instructions for an explanation may be

.explain: give reasons for, clarify
.account for give reasons for, explain
.discuss: in the sense of, account for
.give a rationale for give reasons, explain why
.justify give reasons

Planning to write an explanation
It is important that you organize your explanation so that it makes sense to the readeder that is what needs to be explained first? What background context (possibly a description) is needed to set the sense?
One event may have several causes so that you need to make clear in your signaling (for example, the major cause…, the initial cause…) and similarly there may be more than one outcome or effect, some of which may be immediate effects while others may be long-term outcomes. To make it more complicated, an outcome of an event or idea may then become the cause of the next significant happening. In the planning stages it may be easier to make a good graphical cause and effect chain so that you can more easily see the development to be explained, for example in this simple narrative of events: the neighbor’s baby cried all night > I had no sleep > I was late for the exam > I made many mistakes > I failed the paper.
You can easily see the chain of cause and effect, but it is important to realize that there would be reasons for the baby crying all night, further back in time, and there would be outcomes beyond failing the exam, further on into the future. Your assignment would need to make the context clear (I live in a large inner city apartment block) and perhaps indicate the possible implications for the future (In the future I will schedule my exam revision well in advance), and the scope or limitations of your current explanation in the broader context (of course there are other reasons for my lack of preparation, but the most immediate cause of my poor performance was lack of sleep the night before the exam).
Arrange your explanation in a logic order so that the focus is on your main point, in this example, failing the exam. This may not be the chronological order of events as often interest lies in outcomes, and explanations are given with hindsight.
It may help you in the sorting and planning to draw up cause and effect diagrams. For example, the simple chain of events in sequence:
The neighbor’s baby cried all night > I had no sleep > I was late for the exam > I made many mistakes > I failed the paper is re-arranged to explain an outcome:
Context (where, when, what is happening): I have just received my exam results in the mail and I have failed a key subject.
Conclusion: leaving my exam preparation until the last minute meant that unexpected circumstances resulted in disaster!
Long-term effects: I may have to repeat the subject or leave university and I will not get the job I wanted.
Immediate outcome: I failed the exam paper.
Causal chain as an explanation: the neighbor’s baby cried all night > I had no sleep > I was late for the exam > I made many mistakes.
The full paragraph:
Leaving my exam preparation until the last minute means that unexpected circumstances have resulted in disaster! I have just received my exam result in the mail and I have failed a key subject. I may have to repeat the subject or leave university. This means I will not get the job I want because I failed the exam paper. The reason for this was that on the night before the exam, the neighbour’s baby cried all night. As a result I had no sleep and I was late for the exam and this caused me to make many mistakes.
In this sad example obviously the writer has over-simplified the cause of the disaster and should analyze at more depths! Similarly, there would be other outcomes. Nevertheless this example shows that often an example begins by providing a context for the explanation and focuses firstly on outcomes, before giving the reasons to explain the events. The example also shows that it is often significant in your analysis to differentiate between immediate and long-term causes and outcomes.

Signals to use in your topic sentence that help to link your material in an explanation include: the main reason/cause…; as a result/outcome/effect…; as a sequence…; consequently; therefore, because; if unless, this is why…; so that; so…

Language choices: use past tense if the events are over, but use the timeless present tense to comment on those events. In the example above, notice how the verbs change tense in this way.

3.2.1.3 A Comparison- contrast:
Where the purpose is to show similarities and /or differnce between events, ideas, practices etc.
Typical instructions for a comparison-contrast may be:

Compare show the similarities and differences
Contrast emphasize the difference between

The task may be framed as a question How does Theory X differ from Theory Y? or How does Blogg’s theory of … help you to understand your recent experiences in the workplace? This is a hidden comparison where you are really comparing the explanation.
Similarly, there is a hidden comparison in a task which asks you to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of something (for example, Discuss the advantages and disadvantages to the economy of the policy on immigration). Essentially, you are comparing the positive features with the negative features of the policy.
Less obvious signals for writing a comparison-contrast are words such as more, most, major or less, least. The suffix (or ending on a word) that indicates a comparison –er also signals that you are expected to do more than describe. For example, an assignment may ask you to discuss a proposition such as:
Students write better essays when they are aware of the importance of structure and signals. Discuss.
This task implies a comparison of the writing of those who know about structure and those who do not, and to evaluate the claim from evidence. You can see how this type of task requires you to do several things: compare, explain, and evaluate.
Similarly there is a comparison implied in the following assignment task:
Discuss the claim that student writers’ main difficulty in writing assignments relates to time management.
Here you would need to compare all the difficulties students may have to evaluate whether time management is the main one. Again, the instruction to discuss involves a comparison of ideas and information, and planning using the comparison table or grid can be very useful in finding areas of similarities and difference (see blow).

Planning to write a comparison-contrast
After your reading, brainstorm the areas you can think of to compare and/or contrast. It is then useful to plot these factors in a comparison grid.
For example, if you are comparing three universities and you have done your research, decide on the areas that need to be compared, such as courses offered, location, social activities, cost etc.

Features for comparison
University A
University B
University C
1.courses offered



2.location



3.social activities



4.cost




You would probably want to include more features for the first column. As you fill in the information from your research you will find the areas where there are similarities and differences, and possibly how some universities have more in common than others.
This sorting enables you to see two aspects clearly:
.reading down a column you have a description of one item or idea.
.reading along the row you have a comparison across all items or ideas regarding one particular feature.
If you were to write an essay based on the above information, your introduction would preview your main finding (that is, the preferred university) and the body would then systematically explore the comparison based on each feature in turn, paragraph by paragraph. You may decide that one feature (for example, the cost) is more important than others and so you would give priorities to this in the body of the essay. Your conclusion would sum up: … based on research on several important features, the best choice of university would be…
The grid, or organizer thus provides a useful plan for the writing.
This graphic organizer can be applied to quite complex comparisons. For example, you could compare a collection of poems by one poet to look for similar themes, uses of language and imagery. You could compare different political policies in a particular area to examine where their ideas coincide and where there are significant differences. Using the assignment task and checking your lecture notes for areas of emphasis, you can build up an extensive list of features for the first column, which will enlarge the possibilities of comparison.
However is a significant signal in a comparison: it enables you to describe and explain one aspect of the subject (for example, the advantages of something) and then to move across to describe and explain the other side (the disadvantage), which is essentially a comparison of two or more views of an issue.

Signals to use in your topic sentence that help to link your material in a comparison-contrast including: on the one hand…; on the other…; however, yet/but/though/despite…; either…;or…; in comparison…; in contrast…;on the contrary…

Language Choices: use the present tense to indicate that the comparison is on-going, rather than completed (e.g: The best choice is… not The best choice was …).Use the impersonal third person pronoun unless your own views have been invited in the task.

3.2.2 The discussion essay: the essay that argues and/or evaluates.
In writing a discussion essay, you will be interpreting information (or data) and/or ideas and frequently evaluating or making judgments about the worth ( or usefulness, relevance, appropriateness and so on) of that information and/or ideas, often by comparison and contrasts of points of view. Your own point of view, or thesis will depend on all these process of comparison, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. This type of essay is argument, to convince the reader on the basis of evidence and logic that your thesis is justified. In doing so, you are sometimes asked to give a critical analysis or to critically evaluate other points of view, research or explanations. Before describing strategies for doing this, it is important for you to be clear about your purpose, and about what is expected when these terms are used.
To argue in the academic sense means to put forward a point of view on an issue, supported by logical reasoning and evidence. To do this, you may have to balance contrasting views, reasoning and evidence. In this sense it is similar to debating a subject.
Being critical in an academic sense does not mean being negative, as in the everyday sense of the word. (as in ‘He is critical(fault-finding)’person). A critical reading may reveal the strengths and possibilities of an interpretation and it is important to balance the positive features with the negative. Critiquing a novel, a public policy document, a practice in the classroom, on the ward or work-site, or someone’s theory or explanation will mean evaluating (finding the value, the advantages, the positive features) as well as shortcomings or assumptions that may have been taken for granted by the writer.
Occasionally students are concerned about how to be ‘critical’ and it may seem daunting at first to ‘criticize’ a theory or a practice; however a starting point is to read what process as you think things through. Evaluate the theory or practice in the light of your own experience as well but do not stop there, as everyone’s experience is obviously limited. However your experience is a valuable place to start: do you find the idea logical, sensible, reasonable? If you find that you agree without difficulty then you may need to examine why! Perhaps your assumptions coincide with the writers’ and so you have no trouble in finding their ideas ‘natural’ or ‘commonsense. All the more reason then to try to imagine this viewpoint from the perspective of someone who is not the intended reader: how would an older/younger person view this? A person from a different cultural background, race or gender? These issues are particularly significant when studying the cultural practices of our society. Planning to write a discussion gives strategies for preparing this type of text.
3.2.2.1 Analysis and critical analysis
In analyzing an issue, you are concerned to examine the essential features of a point of view, an explanation, theory, or an experience, therefore you need to ask some or all of these sorts of questions:

. What is the context of this issue? (when and where?)
. What is the main point of thesis?
. What evidence or argument is used to support this view?
. Who is making this assertion? What interests does this view represent?
. How is this writer presenting this view or experience: in what terms? from what perspective? with what sort of language–persuasive, argumentative, authoritative?
. Why is this point of view being put forward?
. What does this writer want me, the reader, to do-to agree? Take action?

It is usually clear when you read political or advertising material that the writer wants you to vote a certain ways, or buy a certain product. In academic argument, writers may be trying to persuade you that their interpretation of circumstances is the logical or ‘natural’ or ‘universal’ way to view them. You can critique the writer’s position by asking the questions above, and also by making an alternative reading of their argument. One way to do this is by asking how someone who does not share the same assumptions might read it. That is, how would someone of a different race, gender, age, class or location view this interpretation? Writers frequently assume that the reader shares their same values, but these assumptions may become more transparent, and therefore open to criticism, when viewed from a different perspective. The critical reader is one who asks questions and looks for gaps or limitations in an argument, asking what or who may have been left out.
Examine for example the following contentions in order to critically analyze them:
1. Women’s place in the home
2. Children’s literacy should be developed in the home as well as in the classroom.
3. Engineers have a responsibility to the environment.
4. A nurse’s first concern should be a patient’s physical condition.

. Is you first reaction to agree or disagree? What is the origin of your values in regard to this statement _ what experiences, whose influences?
. Who would make each claim? And why? How would age or gender, race culture influence a viewpoint on each sentence?
. Who might have a reason to disagree? And why?
. Have people always believed this statement to be true? Can you think of a time or a place where this view would have been held, or would not have been held?

In other words, try to identify your own position and its origins, and consider whether you might change it in the light of new thinking and reading.
As you consider contentions from different viewpoints you can see a discussion emerging, one that will need evidence from research and theories for support. In developing a thesis, or point of view, you will need to draw on evidence that supports your view but also to refer to contrary evidence that does not agree, showing the gaps or limitations in it. Frequently students ask if they should refer to an opposing viewpoint, or just ignore it. The answer has to be that you demonstrate your knowledge of the issue with reference to the contrasting points of view, explaining your knowledge of the arguing for your point of view. If you do not mention that there are different perspectives, you are not dealing with them and therefore giving an unbalanced argument. It also may look like you have not read widely enough to know that conflicting views exist!

3.2.2.2 Critical evaluation
A step further on from a critical analysis is to ask question about the value or worth of what you have found from your analysis. How useful or valuable is the idea or practice – to whom, where and when? What is its importance, significance and relevance? What implications are there? What is needed next? For example, if your task was to critically evaluate Bloggs’ theories on effective writing, you would need to establish the context of the issues then move from a description and explanation of these theories, to an analysis of each part of the theories and finally give an evaluation of their significance. This might also involve you in a comparison with what you think and with other theories on writing.
Typical instructions for a discussion may be:

Argue propose and support a point of view, or weigh up and
compare several views on an issue and develop a thesis.
Analyze examine each part of an issue or argument.
Interpret explain what is meant and relate to the topic.
Evaluate make a judgment on the worth, truth, usefulness etc.
Criticize analyze and make a judgment weighing up positive and negativ
features.
Critically evaluate make a judgment weighing up positive and negative
features.
Critically analyze examine the parts, weighing up positive and negative
features
Critique as above
Review in the sense of making a critical analysis.
Assess make a judgment weighing up positive and negative features.
Discuss weigh up and compare several views on an issue, develop
thesis.

Planning to write a discussion
In preparing to write on this issue, you may already have a personal response before you read several different viewpoints. For example, for an assignment that states: Prohibited drugs should be legalized. Discuss. You may entirely agree with the proposition in the task, in other words your response is ‘yes’ or ‘in favor’. Or you may wish to entirely disagree with the statement, so that your response is ‘no’.
However, for a matter to be an issue, there will be a range of views about it, and it is unlikely that there are clear-cut, ‘black and white’ answers. Often reading widely for an assignment and thinking it through result in the feeling of confusion as you enter the areas of argument. As mentioned earlier, use the drafting process to free-write to clarify your views, as often by the time you reach the conclusion you will have thought it through and your own thesis will have emerged. Obviously, for difficult issues with many possible interpretations, this process may take more than one drafting.
Your response may then end up with a view resting on however, that is, saying neither ‘yes’ nor ‘no’ to the proposition. By contrasting various views on the issue, you are more likely to end up adopting a position which balances reasons and evidence in favor of a viewpoint against those to the to the contrary, to determine an overall position that concedes in some areas: a ‘gray’ position rather than a ‘black and white’ one. Signal words that enable you to cross between contracting views without seeming to contradict yourself are listed below. These are very important to guide your readers as they work through your argument.

Signal words to use in your topic sentences that help to link your material in a discussion include: on the one hand…; on the other;…however…although…; despite…; The strength of this view…; The advantage of this…; A positive contribution to the debate …; The disadvantage …; The negative effects…; This view ignores/emphasizes/is limited by… and so on.

Language choices: use the timeless present tense as the discussion is on-going, even if research you refer to is quite old! A theory still ‘says’ the same thing, whenever it is read.
A useful way to organize a discussion of an issue follows. It is often useful to write the introduction after the body. When you have sorted out your thesis.

Compare:

Tense
Explanation
Comparison and contrast
Discussion
Use past tense if the events are over, but timeless present tense to comment on these events
Use the present tense to indicate that the comparison is on-going rather than completed
Use the timeless present as the discussion is on-going






3.2.3 Model discussion essay outline

Prohibited drugs should be legalized. Discuss.

. opening sentence refers to the context as an orientation (in the above example: The increasing problem of drugs world-wide and the need to find better way combat it)
. identify the issue being debated and define any significant terms (in this example: One solution being suggested in the legalization of prohibited drugs, which are defined as those drugs…)
. preview your own point of view(thesis) and reasons for it (in this example: This solution is too simplistic as argued by C because …)
. you may also need to explain the scope or limits of your discussion (in this example: in the current Australian context…).

For example here is the skeleton of an introduction showing how it previews the assignment to come and uses the key words of the task:
The increasing problem of drugs world-wide and the need to find better ways to combat it…One solution being suggested is the legalization of prohibited drugs, which are defined as… This solution is too simplistic…as argued by C…because in the current Australian context…
You could use the comparison table or grid to help plan the body of the essay as this would set out where the similarities and differences lie between opposing views, to organize your own response. For example:
Issues to analyzed
Writer A
believes
Writer B believes
Writer C believes
Therefore I think
1. How prohibited drugs are defined: differences between types of drugs.





2. Causes of drug abuse




3. Evidence of effects of legalization: overseas examples




4. Possible effects in Australia





and so on. Use each paragraph of the body to develop your argument in a logical order. For a new point, take a new paragraph. (see below). A suggested paragraph structure follows.

. start each paragraph with a topic sentence to indicate the relevance of the point and to signal the reason for the following information(see italicized signal words below).
. discuss the relevant research and arguments of the writers
. relate the contrasting views to your thesis
. if the paragraph has been lengthy, sum up in its concluding sentence.

Part 1: first issue: how prohibited drugs are defined: differences between types of drugs. For example, evidence from writer A and B: acknowledge sources in in-text referencing. In this example: Some research (A;B) indicates…
Part 2: opposing view on first issue: For example from writer C with reasons: acknowledge sources in in-text referencing. Sum up your view: given the opposing views, what is your stance? In this example: On the other hand it is strongly suggested…
Part 3: second issue: Causes of drug abuse. For example, evidence from Writers A, B and C: acknowledge sources in in-text referencing. In this example: There is consensus that…
Part 4: modifying views on second issue: For example, further evidence from writers A and C: acknowledge sources in in-text referencing. Sum up your view: given the opposing views, what is your stance? In this example: However, significant statistics reveal…
Part 5: third issue: Evidence of effects of legalization: overseas example. For example, evidence from writers A, B and C: acknowledge sources in in-text referencing. In this example: Conflicting evidence from overseas trials of legalization indicates...
Part 6: Summing up and arguing your view based on conflicting evidence on third issue: For example, further evidence from writer A and C: acknowledge sources in in-text referencing. In this example: Until firm evidence is available…
Part 7: forth issue: Possible effects in Australia. For example: Summary of main arguments from writer A and B, acknowledge sources in in-text referencing: In this example: Both A and B argue that…
Part 8: opposing view on forth issue: For example from writer C with reasons: acknowledge sources in in-text referencing. Sum up your view: given the opposing views, What is your stance? In this example: This consensus is effectively challenged by …

Conclusion:

. sum up your argument and restate your thesis (refer to the wording of your introduction to check that you have not modified your view, and if you have, redraft your introduction to match).
. link your thesis to the wording of the task.
. do not add any new evidence or examples in the conclusion.
.draw an implication, mention the significance or your recommendations(optional).
For example here is the skeleton of a conclusion showing the balancing of the parts of the essay and a final position taken by the writer (in alignment with one of the researcher’s):
In the complex debate over the legalization of prohibited drugs, it has been suggested that Australia should follow the example of same overseas countries…The solution is not reasonable in the context of the difficulty of defining … and with the possible effects of … Thus C’s (1997) views that … offer a reasonable position until more research has been conducted.





4.Supplementary materials:

4.1 Examples for abstract:
Example 1:
Resurrection in A Tale of Two Cities
内容摘要
《双城记》是狄更斯最重要的代表作之一，也是英国文学中以法国革命为题材的著名小说。狄更斯是英国维多利亚时代前期最杰出的现实主义作家，他的作品始终贯穿着深切同情人民疾苦和无情揭露社会罪恶的主线。本文根据小说故事情节的发展，联系人物性格及人物间的关系，详细地分析了“复活”在三个主要人物身上的具体体现，进而指出“复活”在《双城记》中是一个隐含于故事却跳跃于字里行间的强有力的主题。
关键词:狄更斯；《双城记》；复活；重生
Abstract
A Tale of Two Cities is one of Dickens’ most important masterpieces and is one of the famous novels taking the French Revolution as its background in British literature. Dickens’ works always convey his deep sympathy for the plebeian and pitilessly reveal the social vices [1]. This article, in accordance with the plot of the story and the characters’ personalities as well as the relation between the characters, analyses the specific embodiment of “resurrection” in three main characters with details [2]. By this, the author points out that resurrection is a powerful theme which is applicable outside of the novel’s setting but can be read between the lines [3].
Key Words: Charles Dickens； A Tale of Two Cities； Resurrection；Rebirth

[1]. Introducing purpose (background)
[2]. Describing methodology
[3]. Presenting conclusion

Example 2:
Character is Fate
-----The Tragic Fate of the Hero in The Mayor of Casterbridge
内容摘要
《卡斯特桥市长》是著名英国现实主义作家汤姆斯.哈代的“性格与环境”系列小说中的第一部。哈代在这部小说中强调了命运对人的残酷无情。本文通过分析小说中主人公的性格以及性格对其命运造成的影响，阐述哈代在小说中如何表现其“性格决定命运”的观点。 他所说的“性格”就是指个人意志，“人的正常本能和欲望最终不可避免地导致悲惨结局”，而这一观点，体现在悲剧小说主人公身上，自然演绎为“一方面这些人物具有强烈的个人意志，另一方面这种个人意志又迫使他们自身走向悲剧”。《卡斯特桥市长》中，主人公亨查德由于性格中存在的强烈的因素，他一生受尽命运的捉弄，他一生中所做的重大决定，导致了他生活的起伏波动，以及最终无法摆脱的四处漂泊，客死他乡的悲惨命运。
关键词: 汤姆斯.哈代; 性格; 命运; 环境

Abstract
The Mayor of Casterbridge was the first of the “Character and Environment” novels by the famous British realist writer, Thomas Hardy. The author stresses that Fate is cruel to human beings. In this essay, the theory of Hardy, “Character is Fate”, is illustrated by analysis of the various characters and the influence which character brings to his fate. In Hardy’s point of view, character is the personal will. The personal ability and desire unavoidably result in Michael Henchard’s final tragedy when his constantly fights against the fate but still could not achieve his dream. The hero of tragedy is always the person who has strong personal characters. He can achieve his aim by great effort and can also fall down from his position because of his strong will and misfortune [1]. The hero of The Mayor of Casterbridge, Michael Henchard, experiences a tortuous life and finally died in the heath lonely. This is all because of his flaw of character.[2]
Key words: Thomas Hardy; Character; Fate; Environment

[1]. Introducing purpose (background)
[2]. Presenting conclusion

Example 3:
Fireworks On The Opposite Shore
--The Disintegration Of The American Dream In
The Great Gatsby

内容摘要
《了不起的盖茨比》被公认为20世纪20年代美国文学中的杰作之一。它通过对一对青年男女爱情悲剧的描写，讲述了一个“美国梦”破灭的故事。作者菲茨杰拉德在小说中暗示了美国梦的命运将和主人公盖茨比一样走向毁灭。作者用了一些写作方法来暗示美国梦的破灭。本文旨在分析这些是小说的主旨变得清晰的写作方法，包括了人物关系的处理、人物何时出现的处理、象征手法的运用等等。文章最后还谈到小说谴责了美国社会道德的丧失和社会的腐败，颂扬了对理想坚持不懈奋斗的精神和献身精神。菲茨杰拉德在小说中成功的暗示一点，盖茨比的缺点不仅是他个人的，也是美国梦长久以来的弱点。
关键词：“美国梦”；破灭；道德败坏

Abstract
The Great Gatsby is considered one of the masterpieces of the 1920s American literature documents. It tells a story of the disintegration of the American dream through the plot of a thwarted love affair between a man and a woman. In the novel, Fitzgerald, the author implies that the fate of the American dream is the same as the fate of the hero, Jay Gatsby, which is doomed to disintegrate [1]. The author uses some techniques to imply this disintegration. This thesis analyzes the techniques, which make the theme of the novel clear, including the dealing with the characters’ relationship, character revelation, symbolization and so on [2]. And the thesis finally concluded that the novel condemns the decayed morality and corruption of the American society, and extols the persevering striving for ideal and the devotion spirit. Fitzgerald successfully implied in the novel that the drawbacks of Gatsby belong not only to him personally, but also to the long-standing drawbacks of the American dream [3].
Key words: The American dream; Disintegration; Moral decay

[1]. Introducing purpose (background)
[2]. Describing methodology
[3]. Presenting conclusion










4.2 Examples for introduction
Example 1:
Fireworks On The Opposite Shore
--The Disintegration Of The American Dream In
The Great Gatsby
1.Introduction
Written by F. Scott Fitzgerald in 1925,The Great Gatsby is one of the greatest literary documents of 1920s America. Jay Gatsby is a young man around thirty years old, who rose from an impoverished childhood in rural North Dakata to become fabulously wealthy. He fell in love with Daisy, a beautiful young woman, when he served in Louisville. When Word WarⅠbroke out, Daisy promised to wait for Gatsby, who joined the war. However, She disobeyed her promise and married Tom Buchanan. Gatsby was very upset and owned his failure to the reason that he was not rich enough. Form then on, he dedicated himself to making a lot of money in order to win Daisy back. But his dream was fragile in front of the cruel reality. At last the snare of Daisy’s husband murdered him. Gatsby’s dream is just fireworks on the opposite shore—it is only an illusion he can see but never have a chance to realize, and it disappears very soon without a trace, as if it never happens.[1]
On the surface, The Great Gatsby is a story of the thwarted love between a man and a woman. The main theme of the novel, however, encompasses a much larger, less romantic scope. Though all of its actions take place over a circumscribed geographical area in the vicinity of Long Island, New York, The Great Gatsby is a highly symbolic meditation on 1920s America as a whole, in particular the disintegration of the American dream in an era of unprecedented prosperity and material excess. [2]
Entrusted with a profound meaning, The Great Gatsby’s main plotline is the love affair between Gatsby and Daisy. It is a traditional romantic story about “love and money” as well as an anti-romantic tragedy about the disintegration of the dream of “love and money”. Its essential contribution is that it deeply researches the substance of the “American dream” and seriously criticizes the moral and social decay of “the Jazz Age”. [3]

[1].Establishing the field
[2].Introducing the present research
[3].Indicating the statement of conclusion




Example 2:
Translatability and Its Limitations
Introduction
According to E.A Nida, translating is a process in which the concept is transferred and then corresponding utterance in language B is generated. Roger T. Bell has said that translation is the expression in another language or target language, of what has been expressed in another source language, presenting semantic and stylistic equivalences.
No matter how translation is defined, it, in essence, is a reproduction of source language in the form of the target language. Because each language is unique with its fixed pattern and is reflected through its particular cultural and linguistic elements.
When language is transferred from one to another, translating activities have always been restricted by linguistic forms and cultural factors of both languages. As a result, loss of meaning is in evitable.[1] This in turn gives rise to the problem of translatability and restrictions of translatability. [2]

[1].Establishing the field
[2].Introducing the present research

Example 3:
A Tulip In The Wind
1. Introduction
The author, Hardy, was a solitary pessimist, he tried to live an uneventful life. The background of his novels was always similar: the moors, the hills, and the narrow provincial life and naïve village people. The heroes or the heroines appear to be crashed by a superior force, a pitiless fate, and the indifference, even criticism of his or her fellow creatures. They are not masters of their own fates, always at the mercy of their own passions. Suffering is the rule of society. No matter how man struggles, he will ultimately be knocked down.[1] The most important representative works of these classically constructed tragic ones are: Far from the Madding Crowd, The Return of the Native, The Mayor of Casterbridge, Tess of the d’Urbervilles, and Jude the Obscure. Among them, Tess of the d’Urbervilles is undoubtedly the shiniest one. [2]
The heroine, Tess is a naïve country girl, who is affectionate, sensual, and bright, though poorly educated. She has a passion for life, but life teases her again and again. The first man in her life—Alec d’Urberville takes advantage of her and in unpleasant circumstances seduces her. Tess leaves him and brings up their child alone, but the child dies in his cradle. Then, she meets Angle Clare in Talbothays Dairy and marries him. However, when she admits the incident with Alec, their relationship is torn apart, leading to Angle’s leaving for Brazil and Alec’s second attempt to ensnare Tess. Industrialism brings great impact on agrarian lifestyle and religion blinks people’s eyes so that they can’t distinguish right from wrong. Despite the hardship encounters, she continues to struggle with all difficulties and unfairness. At last, her murdering of Alec becomes the climax of the struggle, and she is finally brought to “Justice”. Born as a virtuous girl and dies as a criminal, no matter how hard Tess tries, her struggle is in vain.[3]

[1].Establishing the field
[2].Introducing the present research
[3].Indicating the statement of conclusion















4.3 Examples for conclusion

Example 1:
A Tulip In The Wind
6. Conclusion
Many of Hardy’s novels belong to “Novels of Character and Environment”, the hero or heroine always faces the fierce conflict between character and circumstances, human and society. They try to break the rules and revolt against the environment, however, they will be defeated or destroyed eventually. This is the human predicament. Hardy has a deep understanding about this. There’s something pessimistic between the lines.
Tess is purely and naturally a woman, desiring understanding and satisfaction, meeting male violation of her body and mind, and coping with it, even so painful is it, taking in the end a violent remedy out of nature, and finding relief and joy in a momentary union. Her request and wish are so simple, but the wave of industrialism and the impact of religion strangle her hope unitedly, although she has tried hard to resist and defeat. This tulip never yields to the wind, but her strength is so weak that she can’t win this struggle.

Example 2:
Fireworks On The Opposite Shore
--The Disintegration Of The American Dream In
The Great Gatsby
3.Conclusion
The novel’s success lies on its criticism on the essence of “the American dream” with poetic language and passion. It condemns the decayed morality and corruption of the American society, and extols the persevering striving for ideal and the devotion spirit. Gatsby, the mysterious personage who represents the American dream, is presented vividly to the readers. Gatsby has a naïve understanding of the society and life. He was lack of self-knowledge and the ability of distinguishing people. He fell into the snares of the evil power of the society. He possessed an optimistic attitude towards future…… However, Gatsby’s inadequacy is just because of his honesty, kindness and a firm belief in life. He believes that he can realize every possibility in his social environment, as well as he can build up a paradise on his own in the American society, which is full of “Tom Buchanans”. From this point of view, he is actually “great”, and is worthy of the sympathy and respect. Fitzgerald showed all of these qualities of Gatsby fully and accurately because he excellently used the techniques of writing and he has deep insight on life experience. The techniques include characters’ relationship, character revelation, and symbolization. He successfully implied in the novel that the drawbacks of Gatsby do not only belong to him personally, but also the long-standing drawbacks of the American dream. Therefore, the American dream cannot withstand a single blow by the reality, represented by Tom and Daisy, though it is actually a bright prospect. Gatsby’s destruction results from his deficient rationality and the ability of distinguishing—he is destroyed in both flesh and soul. It is a tragedy of all the human beings. In this way, the novel is regarded as a masterpiece of the American literature.


Example 3:
Translatability and Its Limitations
4.Conclusion
Translation concerns two languages, which is the reproduction of one language in the form of another language. As each language is a patterned system, the issue of translatability and limitations of translatability will arise during inter-lingual transference.
Taking into account of the above discussion, we can see that inter-lingual translation is possible but can only be translated to some extent. Cultural and linguistic factors serve both as the channel and as the barrier for cross-national message transference.
In principle, any two languages are inter-translatable. Cultural similarity and permeability as well as common linguistic phenomenon contribute to the basis for translatability. On the other hand, cultural gap and linguistic obstructions make complete faithfulness to the same language unrealistic. Therefore, loss of meaning is something unavoidable. The more differences there are in culture and language, the more limitations of translatability there will be. When the differences are so arbitrary, untranslatability will occur, which is the maximum limitation of translatability. However, limitations of translatability are not absolute. With the development of society, the world is going towards globalization and differences between nations will accordingly be cut short. Thus, people will have more and more things to share than to distinguish, which is of great help for inter-lingual translation. Due to the openness of society and language itself, even if there is something that cannot be translated for the time being, it will be translatable in the future.
As for the limitations in cross-lingual translation, compensatory methods can be employed to minimize the gap between the target language and source language.





















4.4 Examples for bibliography
Bibliography
[1]. Bigsby,C.W.E. Modern American Drama[M]. London: Cambridge University Press,1992.
[2]. Easterling, P.E.. The Cambridge Companion to Greek Tragedy [M].上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000.
[3]. Sharma, B.D. Essays in American Literature[M]. R.K.Publishers Distributors, 1991.
[4]. Steiner, George. The Death of Tragedy [M]. New York: Oxford UP, 1980.
[5]. 陈良廷et al.(译).尤金.奥尼尔的剧本:一种新的评价[M].上海:上海译文出版社,1993.
[6]. 崔益华.美国戏剧家尤金.奥尼尔与东方思想关系散论[J].东南大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2001,(5):133-135.
[7]. 丹宁.（译）.梦的解析[M].北京：国际文化出版公司，2001.
[8]. 高觉敷.（译）精神分析引论[M].北京：商务印书馆，2003.
[9]. 鲁玉菱.老子的道论和《悲悼》的“循环回归”[J].山东省青年管理干部学院学报，2002，1:108-109.
[10]. 王振昌 et al.论《榆树下的欲望》的人物性格[J].河南师范大学学报(社会科学大学版),1995，（7）：45-47.
[11]. 吴定柏.美国文学大纲[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社,1998.
[12]. 张春蕾et al. 尤金.奥尼尔对古希腊悲剧的继承与变革[M].镇江师专学报(社会科学版),2001,(1):51-54.
[13]. 张中载.西方古典文论选读[M].北京:外语教学与研究出版社,2000.
[14]. 周作人.欧洲文学史[M].石家庄:河北教育出版社,2002.
[15]. 朱光潜.西方美学史(上)[M].北京:人民文学出版社,1986.
[16].MSN Learning & Research. 16th, Mar.2003
16th, Mar. 2003



4.5
论文撰写规定与格式

学位论文是学位申请人为申请学位而撰写的学术论文。在我国，它是评审学位申请人学术水平的重要依据，也是获得学位的必要条件之一。学士学位论文应表明作者确已在本学科掌握了扎实的基础理论和一定的专门知识、并对某些课题有所研究，有自己的新见解，有从事科学研究的基本能力。为规范学位论文的写作，根据国家有关学位论文撰写格式的标准，特对学位论文的编写格式规范如下：

一. 编写要求

1．学位论文必须用白色打印纸打印。宜用A4 标准大小的白纸，以便于阅读、复制。
2．论文的目录、中外文摘要按1，2，3，4等顺序编号。论文正文必须用阿拉伯数字连续编排页码，页码由正文的首页开始作为第一页（须为另页右页）。封面、封一、封二、封三、封底不编入页码。页码的编号必须标注在每页的相同位置。
3．章、条、款、项的序号编码方法，采用阿拉伯数字分级系列编号法，论文中的章、条、款、项依次排列，从1 开始，连续编号，中间用“。”隔开，最末级不加点。如：
章、 条、 款、 项
1．
2．…2.1
2.2…..2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3…..2.2.3.1
2.2.3.2
2.2.3.3

二、编写格式

学位论文包括前置、主体、附录等三个部分。

（一）前置部分
1。封面和封底：统一印制，申请者按规定认真填写。
2。题名与副题：学位论文题目应简明、具体、确切地概括和反映出论文的特定内容，一般不超过20个字，必要时可以加副标题，以补充说明文中的特定内容。
3。内容提要：摘要是论文的内容不加注释和评论的简短陈述，宜以最简洁的语言介绍论文的概要、作者的突出论点、新见解或创造性成果以及实验方法、数据或结论，是一篇完整的短文，可以独立使用，中文摘要一般在150字左右。论文摘要应具有独立性和自含性，即不阅读论文的全文，就能获得必要的信息，供读者确定有无必要阅读全文，也供文摘等二次文摘采用。
摘要包括中、外文两部分。
4．关键词：关键词是用以表示全文内容信息的单词或术语。为便于文献检索，
学位论文应注明三到五个具有代表意义和提纲挈领式的中、外文“关键词”，以显著的字符另起一行，分别排在中、外文摘要的左下方。
外文关键词应与中文关键词相对应，关键词之间要用“；”隔开。
5．目录：由论文的篇、章、条、款以及附录、题录等序号、题号和页码组成，排在摘要之后另页。
6．学位论文中符号、缩略词和计量单位必须遵循国家规定的标准。对某些未公布使用的，均应在第一次出现时加以说明。

（二）主体部分

主体部分包括引言（绪论）、正文、结论或建议、参考文献。主体部分必须另页右页开始。
1．引言（绪论）：主要说明研究工作的目的、涉及范围、相关领域的前人研究成果和知识空白、研究设想、研究方法等。应言简意赅，不要成为摘要的注释。
2．正文：论文的正文是核心部分，占主要篇幅，可以包括：学习、研究和调查过程中经过筛选所获得的材料，以及经过实验、分析研究而形成或得出的论点或结论，要求论据充分，论点明确。行文必须实事求是，客观真切，准确完备，合乎逻辑，层次分明，简练可读。行文方式可灵活掌握。
3．结论：学位的结论是最终的、总体的结论，不是正文中各段的小节的简单重复，结论应该准确、完整、明确、精炼。如果不可能得出应有的结论，也可以没有结论而进行必要的讨论。也可以在结论或讨论中提出建议、研究设想、尚待解决的问题等。
4．参考文献：写作论文过程中，阅读或运用过某些文献所列出的书目清单，置于正文之后，另页开始。参考文献的著录按原文献语种为原则。
参考文献体例应符合《中国高等学校社科学报编排规范》。说明如下：
（1） 文献目录应另页书写，外文文献排前，中文文献排后。外文文献名须用斜体。
（2） 文献目录一律按作者姓氏汉语拼音或外文字母顺序排列。
（3） 每条文献必须顶格写，回行时空两字。
（4） 将各文献的类型代号（即文献英文名的首字母）注明在文献之后：

专著[M] 学位论文[D] 论文集[C]
报纸文章[N] 期刊文章[J] 报告[R]
专利[P] 专著、论文集的析出文献[A]
其他未说明文件[Z]
电子文献中光盘图书[M/CD]（monograph on CD）
网上期刊[J/OL]（serial online）
联机网上数据库[DB/OL](database online)
示例：

1）专著，学位论文
作者.文献题名[文献类型标识].出版地：出版者，出版年，起止页码.
章振邦.新编英语语法[M].上海：上海译文出版社，1989，3-9。

2）论文集中的析出文献
析出文献作者.析出文献题名[A].论文集主编.论文集书名[C].出版地：出版者，出版年。析出文献起止页码。
许国璋.社会语言学与唯理语言学在理论上的分歧[A].祝畹瑾.社会语言学论文集[C].北京：北京大学出版社，1985，3-9。

3）期刊文章
作者.文献题名[J].期刊名称，年，（期）：起止页码.
高健.语言个性与翻译[J].外国语，1999，（4）：57-62.

4）若文献作者不止一人，只需注明第一作者，然后用et al. 表示。
许均 et al.文学翻译的理论与实践——翻译对话录[C].南京：译林出版社，2001。

5）文内所引文献：要求附夹带，应在引文后家括号注明作者姓名（英文只注姓），出版年和引文页码。若为转引文献，则加quoted in 字样。
例：
（王左良，1982：38）
（Newmark,8:26-33）
(韩沪麟，2000，见“译序”第24页)
（quoted in Newmark, 1998:3）
6) 文献中列出的文献应该与正文中标注的文献一一对应。正文中没出现的，不应出现在参考文献中。

三、打印规格
学位论文打印规格

A4纸

页边距
上；3.3厘米 下：2.3厘米
左3.0厘米 右：1.5厘米
页眉：1.5厘米 页脚：1.8厘米

字体字号

一级标题：3号宋体加黑 Times New Roman
二级标题：4号宋体加黑 Times New Roman
三级标题：小4号宋体加黑 Times New Roman
正文：小4号宋体 Times New Roman
行距
多倍:1.25
页码
居中

The People's Republic of Capitalism?

gloomy: http://dsc.discovery.com/convergence/koppel/highlights/highlights.html

What's The People's Republic of Capitalism?

Irony.

I have to admit that in that article, something seems right, but I must deny onething, which is: China is not a capitalist country, at least right now. Cos you don't know our culture and our history.

From 5,000 years ago, our ancestor created a long, large Chinese history (you must be familiar with the history, so..it's unnessary for me to introduce more about it ), till WW2, yes, we were ruled by Qing dynasty and we did a suck job at the beginning of that war. But after Mao Zedong came into power, he leaded us fighting with allied armies of eight nations, then in 1949 People's Republic of China was founded, but before that, Chinag Kai-shek took all precious, valuable diamonds and golds and silvers along with him, settled down in Taiwan. Since then, China became a poverty and blankness country. For onething, after war, people became destitute and homeless, for another thing, our country was cleaned out by the invaders, As they wantonly set fire to The Winter Palace, indeed, was the crystallization of all of the art that an almost superman race could have fancied. Well, what's done is done, we have strong mind to rebuild our country and let the last things which you would expect astonishing to happen. Yes, we are growing, and it has taken us just a little more than half a century not only to put an end to the backward state of poverty and blankness characteristic of the old China, but also set up a modern industrial system with a complete range of production. But, why? And how?

Thanks to Deng xiaoping, (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping_Theory) we followed his thoughts and theory which leads you guys think our country is more like a capilist but not communist one. Actually, you wrong, in our economy system, on the premise, that we keep public ownership in the dominant position, that the State controls the life-blood of the national economy and that the state-owned sector has stronger control capability and is more competitive which means commercial system in which state-owned commerce leads and multiple sectors of the economy exist side by side. Cos only by this way, we could get out of poverty fastly and build a system be ours culture, tradition, and the most suitable. Don't forget we have Hongkong and Macao and Taiwan(yet, it's not been recovered), those three places have their own economic systems, but in inland, the industrial level and the technological level are not the same, that's why we use "one coutry, two systems".

And, what you seems right are based on the situation at the moment, which is China and United States are both agreed that with a view to promoting the lofty cause of world peace and development, we should strengthen cooperation and work to build a constructive strategic partnership oriented toward the 21st century, which restrained our economic direction, cos lots and lots of enterprises are all from foreign countries, especially capitalism coutries, which, surely bring some cultures and styles which appearently give us a phenomenon that you are in a capitalist country. But we do need those companies to break out of the poverty trap, so, it brings the effects that workers in our country are cheap and everywhere.

That is a momentary thing. Because based on Need Hierarchy Theory by Maslow (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maslow), China is developing day after day and do its people as well. And, as the high speed of economy, system change is necessary, but not now.

Because:
1st, citizens right now are not all get out of proverty;
2nd, Taiwan is still a problem;
3rd, RMB is not that popular as USD or EURO;
4th, Communist Party is the only party in China in power;
5th, no other economy systems are more suitable than what we have right now.

But after 10 years? 20 years? 50 years? I can't say that our economy system will keep the same, cos nobody can promise that he won't turn red after mixing with vermilion. Maybe then, we'll become one of the cruel, cold capitalism.

We are number15??

The most lucrative college majors:
1. Computer Engineering
2. Economics
3. Electrical Engineering
4. Computer Science
5. Mechanical Engineering
6. Finance
7. Mathematics
8. Civil Engineering
... ...
15. English

Well, based on the article by Kurt Badenhausen, I simply found that English is a not bad but not good major. See this:

15. English
Exerience Salary
0 to 5 years $36,700
5 to 10 years $47,900
10 to 20 years $62,300

Humm.. I remember my dean once said to me that English major is no major. But I treated what he said with the contempt it deserves. I was curious why people always like to learn English or other foreign language, cos somebody once told me that he is a patriot and, he'll never learn other languages except our mother language. I know it sounds strange and a little unreasonable, but in China, most of guys will not chose english as their major except there is on other major left for they to chose, which I mean, some majors are good, but it's too hard for them to take, others are too easy, and they don't wanna take as well, or, they just don't have a choice, cos the score they got was too pathetic, so... And, English, as a course, or a major, is something like very easy to deal with, all you have to do is to remember, remember and remember. Words, grammars, or some other foreign cultures, American's, England's, etc. While you are graduate, you can find a job in foreign company, using what you taught and living a peaceful life. But.

After reading that article, suddenly I found, wow! World is so interesting. Who can tell me why we are going to college? Even when you finish it, you wanna get a higher degree? Cos we wanna find a good job? To earn a big sum of money?

I think in this high development world, only study is not a good way to keep on, and inter- or cross- learning is becoming more and more inportant, especially in our students' daily livies. See, there once a Chemisty major student who studied in Peking University used to pull H2SO4 to a live wild panda to test that if the fur of it will be burnt or not.

Sometimes, you have to be a "éclectique", not a "bookworm". While, I think, English is a good major, cos English is an international language, so, almost every firsthand information are all written in English. To some students who have broad interests, they'll get benifit from it, cos they can read them very easily but to those who english are not good guys, they'll only limited in what their professor taught them. (this is only happen in Non-English speaking countries.) As far as I know, in China, most of intelligent students who studying in Stinghua or Peking University, their English is not that good, but their specialize fields are absolutely top. And, one day I heard that in US, most of the non-inportant "thinking group" of white house or some big company or CIA or FBI are all Chinese. And, if you do an easily search in google or baidu, you'll find that in most of development coutries, US, UK, German, Russia, French, etc, each of their citizens are biolingual.

So, you can figure out, if every Chinese citizen could speak a fluently English, how strong of our coutry will be.

Well, kinda late, so, I'll drop my personal point of view about this article: English is a tool, learn it, use it, to get knowledges of other fields, then, your pay will be doubled and doubled and doubled. One day, you'll be a boss of a big company of your own. So, English is No. 1!